Social Studies
When States Falter
Introductory Questions
- How would you define a state? Are nations and states different?
- What purposes do states serve in the world?
- How different would your life be if you had been born in a different state?
- Do “perfect” states exist in the world?
- What are the “best” and “worst” states you can think of? How are you measuring them?
- Are democracies better states than non-democracies?
- What is the difference between a failed state and a fragile state?
- What do failed (and fragile) states have in common?
- How much of state failure can be attributed to politics?
- How much of state failure can be attributed to factors beyond a state’s control?
- Who should be in charge of measuring a state’s success—its citizens, or other states?
- If you were the leader of a failed or fragile state, whom would you ask for help?
- Can there be such a thing as a failed region in a successful state? How about a successful region in a failed state?
- What happens to a state after it fails? What happens to its people?
- Has globalization made states stronger or weaker?
- Do revolutions and uprisings save states, or further doom them?
- Is a failed state a failed society?
- Are some states doomed to failure?
- Is the traditional concept of the state outdated in an age of globalization and the Internet?
- Do your best to understand the current refugee crisis, also sometimes called the "Syrian" refugee crisis. Should all nations open their borders to people in need - or are nations right to reject any, many, or all of them?
Why Do Bad Things Happen to Good States?
- Factors in State Failure: Civil War | Foreign War | Economic Collapse | Natural Disasters | Climate Change | Regime Type | Leadership | Colonialism | Disease | Geography
- Select Historical Cases: Biafra | Haiti | Weimar Republic | the Roman Empire | Yemen | Libya | Zaire | Colombia | the Soviet Union | Somalia
- Potential Preventative and Restorative Measures
Total Fail? Tools for Measurement
Additional Terms to Learn (Examples)
- Weak state | Fragile state | Collapsed state | Catastrophic success
- Civil Society | Regime Type | Institutions | NGOs
- Development Agencies | Peacebuilding Commission | Post-Conflict Compacts
- Democratization | Authoritarianism | Sovereignty | Social Contract
Selected Readings & Speeches
- The Coming Anarchy – Robert Kaplan
- The Social Contract (Book 1, Chapter 6, Pages 6-7) – Jean-Jacques Rousseau
- The Prince, Chapters 5 & 17 – Machiavelli
- Leviathan, Chapter 13 – Thomas Hobbes
- “Why Do Societies Collapse?” – Jared Diamond
- “How to Rebuild a Broken State” – Ashraf Ghani
- “New Rules for Rebuilding a Broken Nation” – Paul Collier
Selected Film: The Lego Movie
Additional Questions & Cases to Discuss (Examples)
- Study the Fund for Peace's "Fragile States Index" (formerly the "Failed State Index"). Why do you think the index has been renamed? Are its metrics appropriate? Where does your country fall in their rankings – and do the rankings of any states surprise you?
- How important are institutions to the success or failure of states? Consider the examples of Nogales and of the two Koreas in the book Why Nations Fail, by Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson – and then read this assessment of their argument by Jared Diamond.
- Is it the duty of other states to rescue or save failed states?
- Should Colombia serve as a model for other formerly-failed states?
- Is there a failed state cycle—and, if so, how can a state break out of it?
- Are hermit states more likely to fail?
- Can NGOs prevent state failure—or help restore failed states? If so, what should the focus of their efforts be?
- What can we learn from fictional failed states such as Gotham and Panem?
- Consider the case of Greece. Is economics the most critical factor in state failure?
- To what degree can we blame the failure of states on climate change?
- Does terrorism cause states to fail? Or: do failed states spawn terrorism?
- Consider the recent catastrophic cholera outbreak in Zimbabwe. Was it the main reason for the government’s collapse – and did Ebola have a similar impact on countries in West Africa?
- Explore the Rwandan concept of ubudehe. Could it be applied in other failing states?
- Is Belgium a failed state?
- Myanmar was until recently an example (for some) of a failing state. Should the recent elections there change this perception?
- Is it premature (or too pessimistic) to label post-war Iraq a failed state?
- Consider other recent cases of state failure such as Haiti and the Central African Republic. In rebuilding a failed state, how important are democratic elections?
- In Silicon Valley (and beyond), a conventional wisdom has emerged that it is good for people and companies to “fail fast” in order to succeed sooner. Does the same apply to states?
Q1. How would you
define a state? Are nations and states different?
Ans. Nation: A group of people that shares common bonds, such as
language and religion. An example is world Jewry.
State:
A group of people that exercises some political
authority over a larger group. An example is a government and since a
government usually speaks on behalf of a people (nation), the word 'state' is
often used to represent both 'nation' and 'state'.
So to be
technical in using these words, if there is a need to point out a government,
the word 'state' should be used, if there is a need to talk about a people, the
word 'nation' should be used, and if there is a need to talk about all three
elements, the word 'country' should be used.
Q2.
What purposes do states serve in the world?
Ans.
A state is simply the formalization of the
tribe. It is a group of people who see themselves as similar, either
because of a shared language or culture or land area, who wish to be bound
together under a common label. In some cases, a state may expand to
include a number of different tribes who see a benefit in being together under
some common name, such as the United States. In earlier times, states
were created by some kind of Chief who laid claim to an area of wealth or
people and who wished to keep that group or area under his control. On
some level, the people under that group accepted this designation as legitimate
and agreed to live in that state and follow the rules it imposed. This
usually came with some benefit to the citizens, such as safety from attack or
economic prosperity brought through peace and trade.
Q3. How different would your life be if you
had been born in a different state?
Ans. The life in other state depends on the
openness of society and culture. It also depends on how much freedom that state
provides to the people living there. Like there are some places where people
have little or no freedom to live life according to their own choice.
Q4. Do
“perfect” states exist in the world?
Ans. No, every State in history proved to
be a failure at many levels.
The thing is, you cannot postulate perfection on something
“human”, like politics, society, ethics, psychology…
Man is the being most open to change because he is free. You
cannot simply decide what State would be ideal to men, because there will
always be many complaints of social injustice.
The perfect State would be a justice State, but then, what is
justice anyway? There are two justices, and until now, no one can decide which
is the true one.
The first justice would be in letting everybody live freely,
without restrictions from the State. The latter would just supervise and
provide security and rights to individuals. Everybody would have the same
rights, but some would be better off in their lives because of predispositions,
such as intelligence, wealthy family, etc… leaving poorer people behind. This
is what libertarians and right-wingers advocate for.
The second one would be that the State controls most relations
between individuals and has a solid hand over the economy. Thus, richer people
would pay more taxes, while poorer people would pay less, and therefore the
rich would be helping the poor through taxes. Everybody would be equal in terms
of wealth, but some would have more rights than others. This will result in an
injustice where the poor, who might be less qualified and less useful for
society as a whole, would have more freedom than the rich. This is the
progressive/socialist/communist and left-wingers vision.
So, in the
end, we cannot conceive an ideal State, because, at first, it will not fit
everybody, and then, it would emphasize a justice while negating another.
Q5. What are the “best” and “worst” states
you can think of? How are you measuring them?
Ans. Best state:
1.
Hawaii - The island
state fares well in terms of education, with a slightly higher percentage of
women older than 25 holding a bachelor's degree than men. The state comes in
third, behind Maine and Washington, for its gender gap in political
empowerment; specifically, the number of female lawmakers in Congress and the
state legislature.
Worst
state
Delaware - The state falls in
the bottom half of all states when it comes to workplace environment,
education, and political empowerment.
Q6.
Are democracies better states than non-democracies?
Ans. 1) It
provide space for fair and healthy competition - In democracy, every citizen has a fair
chance to come to power. Every individual has one vote and every vote has equal
value. The say of a slum dweller in deciding the political future of the country
is the same as that of a millionaire industrialist. Free and fair elections are
held from time to time under the supervision of an independent body. A true
democracy is a platform of healthy competition, not subjected to muscle might
or power play.
2) Its provide scope to
correct one’s mistake - Though in a democracy, people take their own
decisions by electing their own representatives, there is no guarantee that
decisions taken by the general public at the time of elections prove to be
right for the years to come. Sometimes, people may later realize that they made
a wrong choice. The best part of democracy is that such mistakes cannot stay
hidden for long and there is room for correction. When the representatives we
elect turn out to be corrupt or insensitive towards public sentiments, we can always
vote for better alternatives in the next general elections. If the rulers do
not change their decisions, we can change them. This is not possible in any
other form of government.
Q7. Are some states doomed to failure?
Ans. Some states
are geographically doomed, being landlocked and having poor resources, disease
and in climate weather which makes it difficult to prosper.
Q8. Has globalization made states stronger or
weaker?
Ans.
Globalization
has helped to lift millions out of poverty and economies to the next level.
Globalization has increased competition and put pressure on the developed world
to increase performance. In absolute terms, I believe globalization has made
many states/economies stronger. However, as markets like China and India or
regions like South East Asia have raised the profile the former leading nations
are relatively less strong than 30 years ago. Furthermore, today’s states are
more interdependent and hence more vulnerable in respect to external shocks.
This can be considered as the price for a more inclusive world, where income
and wealth is more equally distributed across nations. As we are currently
experiencing a strengthening of regions, we are gradually increasing the
robustness and resilience of the global system. The income inequality within
countries remains a major risk and needs to be addressed.
Q9. Is
a failed state a failed society?
Ans.
1) “State failure” is leading to confused policy making. For example, it is causing the military to
attempt overly
ambitious nation-building and
development to approach counter-terrorism, under the unproven assumption that
“failed states” produce terrorism.
2) “State failure” has failed to produce any useful academic
research in economics.
You would expect a major concept to be the subject of research
by economists (as well as by other fields, but I am using economics research as
an indicator). While there has been research on state failure, it failed to
generate any quality academic publications in economics. A search of the top
economics journals1 reveals that “state failure” (and all related
variants like “failed states”) has been mentioned only once EVER. And this
article mentions the concept only in passing.
3) “State failure” has no coherent definition.
Different sources have included the following:
a) “Civil war” b) “infant mortality” c) “declining levels of GDP
per capita” d) “inflation” 3 e) “unable to provide basic services” f)
“state policies and institutions are weak” g) “corruption” h) “lack accountability” 4 i) “unwilling to adequately assure the
provision of security and basic services to significant portions of their
populations” 5 (wouldn’t this include the US?) j) “inability
to collect taxes” k) “group-based inequality… and environmental decay.” 6 l) “wars and other disasters” m) “citizens
vulnerable to a whole range of shocks” 7
Most of these concepts are clear enough in themselves, and often
apply to a large number of countries. But is there any good reason to combine
them with arbitrary weights to get some completely unclear concept for a
smaller number of countries? “State failure” is like a destructive idea machine
that turns individually clear concepts into an aggregate unclear concept.
Q10.
Do revolutions and uprisings save states, or further doom them?
Ans. The main
thing is that it's impossible to formalize terms "saving a state" or
"dooming a state". People have different opinions, views, political
beliefs, and, therefore, always evaluate historical situations from their own
points of view.
Take the Russian revolution for example: some
people treat it as a catastrophy for the country and the nation which ruined
Russia's rapidly developing economy and civic society; others view it as
triumph of working class and liberation of people from the Tsarist regime.
There is no compromise opinion, and, most probably, there never will be.
Different views on countries' political sutiations
are the reason revolutions, uprisings and civil wars happen in the first place.
Probably only one thing can be said with confidence: a revolution always means
radical changes, destruction and, almost always, violence.
Q11. Is the traditional concept
of the state outdated in an age of globalization and the Internet?
Ans.
Q12. Who should be in charge of measuring a state’s
success—its citizens, or other states?
Ans. it should be the citizens who should
be in charge of measuring a state's success; as they live and reside in the
country and are aware of the happenings in the country and an average of how
much the country is earning. Citizens do know the above to some extent, they
are also aware of the profits and losses of the state, that is if they are
political and care for the economy of their state or just like reading the
newspaper. Hence, the citizens should be in charge of measuring a state’s
success. But, then again there are many things that are hidden by the
government from the citizens so as to not worry the citizens or make a big hype
about it. So, it all depends on your opinion.
Q13. Can there be such a thing as a failed region
in a successful state? How about a successful region in a failed state?
Ans. Failed
region in a successful state:
Yes it happens all the time. A shameful example
exists in Canada a successful first world country by all definitions. Far too
many first nations communities exist in a reality far removed from the Canada
most Canadians recognize. Lacking adequate housing, employment, education,
clean and safe drinking water among other issues makes these areas of Canada
seem like a 3rd world country conveniently hidden from Canadian conscience.
This treatment has been declared a violation of basic human rights by many
organizations including the U.N.
Other failed regions in states would be modern
ghetto’s and down trodden towns/ cities/ communities, every country has them
and often many of them. Some easy examples: U.S Detroit, France minority filled
shanty towns, Brazil has favelas and on and on.
Successful regions in failed state:
Yes also happens all the time. It’s usually in
areas around where the people in power get their support and live. Easy
examples in war torn Syria the place politicians and business people live and
vacation even while the country fell apart seemed like a different place,
vibrant, relaxed touristy. In Lybia it was Ghadfies home town that had nice
infrastructure and a vibrant economy.
The key point: In a failed state or a successful one live among
the politicians, business leaders, power brokers and within the majority. Buy a
house or rent within the areas that the prominent cultural/ racial majorities
live especially if you look and speak differently and as close to the people in
power as possible. Even if you are a native and part of the majority do not live
in areas too far removed from the countries power leaders/ brokers. When they
start to vacate the areas follow them and move where they move.
Why Do Bad Things Happen to good state
only?
Factors in State Failure: -
1)Civil war - a civil is basically war between groups of people in the same
country or, less commonly, between two countries. The aim of one side
may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for
a region or to change government policies.
2) Foreign wars - If one country is fighting
with the inhabitants of another, the country whose troops are not on their own
territory are fighting a foreign war. This is not conceptually difficult. So,
most wars have been foreign wars.
3) Economic
Collapse: - A complete breakdown of a national, regional or territorial
economy. An economic collapse is essentially a severe version of an economic
depression, where an economy is in complete distress for months, years or
possibly even decades. A total economic collapse is characterized by economic depression, civil unrest and highly increased poverty levels. Hyperinflation, stagflation and financial-market crashes can all be causes. Government intervention is usually necessary to bring an economy back from collapse, but can often be slow to remedy the problem.
The Great Depression in the United States is a prime example of an economic collapse. The 1929 stock market crash brought on a collapse that lasted for many years and saw high levels of poverty. Well-known economist John Maynard Keynes claimed this was from the total lack of government involvement in the economy or the financial markets.
4) Natural Disaster: - A natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth; examples include floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic processes.
5) Climate change: - Climate change, therefore, is a change in the typical or average weather of a region or city. This could be a change in a region's average annual rainfall, for example. Or it could be a change in a city's average temperature for a given month or season.
party, political party - an organization to gain political power; "in 1992 Perot tried to organize a third party atthe national level"
republic, democracy, commonwealth - a political system in which the supreme power lies in a body of citizens who can elect people to represent them
hegemony - the dominance or leadership of one social group or nation over others; "the hegemony of a singlemember state is not incompatible with a genuine confederation"; "to say they have priority is not to say they havecomplete hegemony"; "the consolidation of the United States' hegemony over a new international economicsystem"
mobocracy, ochlocracy - a political system in which a mob is the source of control; government by themasses
oligarchy - a political system governed by a few people; "one of his cardinal convictions was that Britain wasnot run as a democracy but as an oligarchy"; "the big cities were notoriously in the hands of the oligarchy of local businessmen"
republic - a form of government whose head of state is not a monarch; "the head of state in a republic isusually a president"
technocracy - a form of government in which scientists and technical experts are in control; "technocracywas described as that society in which those who govern justify themselves by appeal to technical experts whojustify themselves by appeal to scientific forms of knowledge"
social organisation, social organization, social structure, social system, structure - the people in asociety considered as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships; "the social organization ofEngland and America is very different"; "sociologists have studied the changing structure of the family."
7) Leadership: - Leadership
is the ability of a company's management to set and achieve challenging goals,
take swift and decisive action, outperform the competition, and inspire others to
perform well. It is tough to place a value on leadership or other qualitative
aspects of a company, compared to quantitative metrics that are commonly tracked and much easier
to compare between companies. Individuals with strong leadership skills in the
business world often rise to executive positions such as CEO, COO, CFO, president and chairman.
8) Colonialism: - the policy or practice of acquiring full or
partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and
exploiting it economically.
9) Disease:
- a disorder of structure or function in a human, animal, or plant, especially
one that produces specific symptoms or that affects a specific location and is
not simply a direct result of physical injury.
10) Geography:
- the study of the physical features of the earth and its atmosphere, and of
human activity as it affects and is affected by these, including the
distribution of populations and resources and political and economic
activities.
Q1. What are failed states?
Ans. Failed state is a state whose
political or economic system has become so weak that the government is no
longer in control. In failed states the basic conditions
and responsibilities of a sovereign government no longer function properly.
Q2.
Difference between fragile state and Failed state?
Ans. According
to Wikipedia, a fragile
state is a low-income country
characterized by weak state capacity and/or weak state legitimacy leaving citizens vulnerable
to a range of shocks. Not only are they falling behind, but the gap
with other developing
countries is widening.
Whereas a state where the political and
economic system is vanished is called failed states.
Q3. What causes a state to fail?
Ans. 1) Inability to
provide public services.
2) Loss
of control of its territory, or of the monopoly on the
legitimate use of physical force therein.
3) Failing of states is also caused due to week
central government.
Q4. Why did Haiti fail?
Ans. Haiti is part of a large Caribbean island called Hispaniola. The
Dominican Republic is located to the east of Haiti and covers over half of the island.
Cause of the earthquake
Haiti lies right on the boundary of the
Caribbean and North American plates. There was slippage along a conservative plate boundary that runs through Haiti.
On 12 January 2010, a magnitude 7 earthquake hit Haiti at 16:53
local time. The earthquake’s epicentre was 25 km west of Port-au-Prince, the
capital. Most people, businesses and services were located in the capital.
Social impacts of the
earthquake (effects on people)
·
3 million people affected.
·
Over 220,000 deaths.
·
300,000 injured.
·
1.3 million made homeless.
·
Several hospitals collapsed.
Economic impacts of the
earthquake (effects on money and jobs)
·
30,000 commercial buildings collapsed.
·
Businesses destroyed.
·
Damage to the main clothing industry.
·
Airport and port damaged.
Many of the effects were immediate or primary, eg
injuries from falling buildings. Some secondary effects didn’t happen until many months
later, eg cholera outbreaks. The effects of this earthquake were particularly
bad because of the following reasons:
·
There were very few earthquake-resistant buildings.
·
Buildings and other structures were poorly built.
·
There were few resources to rescue or treat injured people.
Response to the earthquake
Haiti is a very poor country without the money and resources to
redevelop. It is one of the least developed countries in the world with most
Haitians living on $2 or less per day, about £1.30.
Because there were few earthquake-resistant buildings, the devastation was
massive. Many buildings simply collapsed or were damaged beyond repair.
Primary responses
·
Neighbouring Dominican Republic provided emergency water and
medical supplies as well
as heavy machinery to help with search and rescue underneath the rubble, but
most people were left to dig through the rubble by hand.
·
Emergency rescue
teams arrived
from a number of countries, eg Iceland.
·
Medical teams began treating the injured – temporary field hospitals were
set up by organisations like the International Committee of the Red Cross.
·
People from around the world watched the news from Haiti on TV
and through social networks. Many pledged
money over
their mobile phones.
Secondary responses
·
Money was pledged by organisations and governments to assist in
rebuilding, but only slow progress had been made after one year.
·
After one year, there were still 1,300 camps.
·
‘Cash for work’ programs are paying Haitians to clear rubble.
·
Small farmers are being supported – so crops can be grown.
·
Schools are being rebuilt.
In 1961, Duvalier began violating the provisions of the 1957
constitution: first he replaced the bicameral legislature with a unicameral
body. Then he called a new
presidential election in which
he was the sole candidate, though his term was to expire in 1963 and the
constitution prohibited re-election. The election was flagrantly rigged; the
official tally showed 1,320,748 “yes” votes for another term for Duvalier, with
none opposed. Upon
hearing the results, he proclaimed, “I accept the people’s will.... As a
revolutionary, I have no right to disregard the will of the people".The New
York Times commented,
“Latin America has witnessed many fraudulent elections throughout its history
but none has been more outrageous than the one which has just taken place in
Haiti”. On 14 June 1964, a constitutional
referendum made
Duvalier “President for Life”, a title previously
held by seven Haitian presidents. This referendum was also blatantly rigged; an
implausible 99.9% voted in favour, which should have come as no surprise since
all the ballots were premarked “yes”. The new document granted Duvalier—or Le Souverain, as he was called—absolute
powers as well as the right to name his successor.
Q5. Why did Biafra fail?
Ans. In the history books and the
accounts of witnesses it is well known that the Nigerian state was the
aggressor in the war. Nigeria with the help of Great Britain, USSR and the Arab
nations combined forces and fought dirty to defeat Biafra in 1970. With that
said it is true that Biafra lost the War because of the formidable forces that
allied themselves against the new nation. Yet, as it is with other complex
things in life, if we looked close enough we will see other reasons why
Biafrans failed in their justified first attempt at Self Determination and
independence. As we go on we will find an uncomfortable lapse on the side of
Igbo leaders. We will see that the War was lost not as a result of lack of
courage or necessarily because of the seemingly insurmountable odds against
Biafra. Biafrans had all the courage they needed because someone said that
Biafrans did not just fight hard and well as heroes, he said that heroes fight
like Biafrans. Biafrans so demonstrated courage and bravery against odds that
today people equate Biafra with, apart from Freedom and Human Dignity; Heroism! Over the years Biafra has become synonymous with
those who do heroic things. Today it is believed that whoever that is a Biafran
is a hero and does things that befit heroes. But fighting and defending oneself and others as heroes do might
sound impressive to some, especially when a vulnerable people come under the
threat of total extermination. But when we consider it by a different standard
we may be surprised to see that there may not be much in it to be proud of
after all. Life force is among the most powerful forces in existence. In summer
time, I have seen green grasses grow almost lush in cracks in the middle of
busy roads where ten thousand vehicles run on every day. That is an excellent
example of the power of the will to survive that is inherent in living things.
For grass existence, to endure such harsh and impossible conditions and still
survive and maybe thrive is commendable. But here we are talking about human
beings with higher intellects than mere grasses. Nature endowed humans with the
power of the intellect that enables them to not just exist but determine their existence.
Humans have the capacity to, through the power of their mind, determine the
quality of their existence here on Earth. This explains the saying; to whom
much is given, much is expected.
For Igbo/Biafrans, it is not
enough to fight and defend their right to life; they are expected to do more
than that. When in the 1980s Nigerian Muslims recommenced the Islamic jihad on
the Igbo in Kano and other cities in the North of Nigeria under the name
Maitatsine; a variant of today’s Boko Haram, the Igbo after overcoming the
initial shock of surprise attack, rose up and defended themselves. The Nigerian
government just like today could not defend them. There were Igbo businessmen
that had shops in the city that sold guns. They took a quick decision and emptied
their stores by distributing the guns to fellow Igbo in Sabon Gari, Kano. Their
attackers backed down when their Islamic beheading knives and daggers were
matched with Igbo guns and ammunition. We can go on and list other such heroic
moments when the Igbo came together and fought as one against a common enemy.
Yet, as commendable as the action of self-defence is, for the Igbo to not just
survive but become secure and prosperous, they must take it a step further from
that basic level. They must shift their attention from fighting survival
battles, and learn to come together and fight future battles before they begin.
All progressive societies
around the world at one point in their history confronted this truth and
recognized its significance to their success. There is no nation or a group of
people that has made any significant progress by remaining at the level of the
reactionary. The Igbo nation of today must come to the realization that if she
must live successfully in this world, then she must learn to take the
initiative in all areas of human endeavours. Igbo people must become offensive
and take the fight to the enemy territory rather than lead a carefree existence
and only fight back when attacked. The Igbo of this generation must position
their nation to begin to take advantage of the works of past generations. Again
that is the hallmark of all progressive societies; the ability to stand on the
shoulders of past generations rather than let each new generation start from
the scratch. It is only lower animals and plants that start afresh at every new
season. Even then they have the advantage of their natural instinct and
self-adjusting genetic coding capability to compensate for what they lost in
their lack of the ability to process complex information and stimuli and make
adjustments ahead of events
From available evidences Igbo
leaders, politicians and intellectuals failed to fight the Biafra War ten,
twenty years before it began. Such lapses on the side of the people in
responsible positions in Igbo/Biafra Land are unacceptable and must never
happen again. Contrary to Igbo people’s attitude about the country, the others
in Nigeria never hid their negative feelings and intentions against the Igbo
long before the 1966 Igbo pogrom/genocide that led up to the 1967 to 1970 war.
For any careful observer it was not difficult to see how the Hausa, Fulani,
Yoruba and others fought their own side of the war long before it began. They
won the War not necessarily because of the combined forces of Britain, Soviet
Union, Egypt and the Arab League of Nations. (Readers who care to pursue this
point further are encouraged to listen to and read what the Ahmadu Bellos and
others of Nigeria had to say about Igbo people ten, twenty years before the
War). The present generation of Igbo people cannot afford to allow the repeat
of that pre-War mistake. The leaders must learn to think and plan ahead while
calling the bluff of the frowning faces of demagogues who flaunt before them
the catch phrases; “you want to break up the country,” “you want to be rebels”.
Igbo leaders, politicians and intellectuals must stop falling victims of the
trap of wanting to please these Nigerian browbeaters by recoiling and
apologizing for their very existence. They must stop being content with just
living for the moment and “safe” so that no one accuses them of “trying to
break up the country”. Nigeria should have broken up long before now, anyway.
The union should never have been in the first place.
Anyone for that matter, but
especially Igbo leaders in any capacity should be concerned about what verdict
the next generation would pass on what they did or failed to do. If the present
Igbo political leadership and intellectuals failed to see ten, twenty years
before now the eventual breakup of Nigeria and emergence of an independent and
sovereign Igbo or Biafra nation then something is wrong. By today they ought to
have completed all preparations needed to run a successful Igbo/Biafra nation
state, separate from Nigeria.
It is gross negligence and
irresponsibility on the side of Igbo political, business and intellectual
leaders of today to be so concerned about what their neighbours, “the frowning
demagogues” will say or just being “conscious” of the feelings of the others
who are working only for their own people’s benefits, and fail to work for the
improvement of the fortunes of the present and future of Igbo people. We are
not stretching the truth when we say that the current Islamic Boko Haram
scourge against Igbo/Biafrans would never have happened if Igbo intellectuals
and leaders had prepared for it ten to twenty years before it began. If this
tide of death and destruction that is continuously unleashed on the Igbo in
Nigeria must be turned away, then Igbo leaders and intellectuals must resolve
to reverse this collective suicidal trend of only reacting after the heads of
their people have been Islamic-ally cut off.
At this point there may still
be those who are yet to be convinced and are still bent on finding “solutions”
by finding ways through which Igbo people will continue to coexist with the
rest of Nigerians in the same country; that is not a problem. It is the duty of
the collective Igbo/Biafran leaders and thinkers to patiently work harder still
to persuade such persons. No single Igbo or Biafran will be left behind. Igbo
opinion leaders, politicians, intellectuals and business people must find a way
to patiently educate and persuade every Igbo/Biafra sceptic on why their only
option is living independently away from Nigeria. Let them show the people why One-Nigeria
is not and can never be an option for Igbo people. Igbo leaders and
intellectuals must find the way to convince the residual doubters that the
fault or impossibility of a One-Nigerian state is too fundamental and
practically irreconcilable. The fault line lies at the centre of the
unbridgeable differences in the way of life of the various peoples that make up
one-Nigeria. The cultural/religious diversities existing amongst the various
ethnic peoples that comprise the Nigerian union are irreconcilable. It is the
duty of Igbo leaders to convince the unbelievers among their people that
culture and a people’s way of doing things is the very essence of the people’s
being and cannot be compromised. Let them know that it is the reason why people
everywhere fight to death to preserve the way they do things as distinct from
those of others. It is the duty of Igbo leaders to convince their people on the
fact that no matter the rhetoric on the contrary, no one will win the war for
one-Nigeria. It is an ideological warfare, a cultural/religious browbeating.
And to win is to begin by positioning the Igbo nation and showing the people
how to fight the next Biafra and all other Igbo/Biafra wars before they begin.
Q6. Why did Weimer Republic
fail?
Ans. Weimar
Republic is an unofficial designation for the German between 1919 and 1933. The name derives
from the city of Weimar, where its assembly first took place. The official name of the
state was the Deutsches Reich,
continuing the name from the pre-1918 German
Empire.
The Weimar Constitution.
Germany’s post-war constitution has shouldered much of the blame for the political
instability of the 1920s. The men who drafted the constitution in 1919
attempted to construct a political system not unlike that of the United States,
incorporating democracy, federalism, checks and balances and protection of
individual rights. Tellingly, they created an executive presidency who had
considerable emergency powers, allowing him to bypass or override the elected Reichstag.
Some historians suggest the Weimar president – with his seven year term and
these hefty emergency powers – was not far removed from the former kaiser.
Stalemates in the Reichstag meant the president’s emergency powers
were frequently called into action, which only enhanced and worsened political
divisions.
Weimar’s electoral system. The
proportional voting system used in Weimar Germany was inherently democratic, in
that it allocated seats in the Reichstag based on the share of votes each party
received. The problem with proportional voting was that it prevented any
realistic chance of a majority government, where one party could form
government in its own right. Proportional voting filled the Reichstag with a number of smaller parties,
many with membership and policies that were wholly sectional or regional. The
scattered composition of the Reichstag meant that coalitions were required,
and these coalitions were often fractious and fragile. The presence of so many
parties and interests hindered debate in the chamber and made passing
legislation difficult.
Q7. Why did the roman empire fail?
Ans.
The invading army reached the outskirts of Rome, which had been
left totally undefended. In 410 C.E., the Visigoths, led by Alaric, breached
the walls of Rome and sacked the capital of the Roman Empire.The Visigoths looted, burned, and pillaged their way through the city, leaving a wake of destruction wherever they went. The plundering continued for three days. For the first time in nearly a millennium, the city of Rome was in the hands of someone other than the Romans. This was the first time that the city of Rome was sacked, but by no means the last.
Constantine and the Rise of
Christianity
One
of the many factors that contributed to the fall of the Roman
Empire was the
rise of a new religion, Christianity. The Christian religion, which was
monotheistic ran counter to the traditional Roman religion, which was
polytheistic (many gods). At different times, the Romans persecuted the
Christians because of their beliefs, which were popular among the poor.In 313 C.E., Roman emperor Constantine the Great ended all persecution and declared toleration for Christianity. Later that century, Christianity became the official state religion of the Empire. This drastic change in policy spread this relatively new religion to every corner of the Empire.
By approving Christianity, the Roman state directly undermined its religious traditions. Finally, by this time, Romans considered their emperor a god. But the Christian belief in one god — who was not the emperor — weakened the authority and credibility of the emperor.
Constantine enacted another change that helped accelerate the fall of the Roman Empire. In 330 C.E., he split the empire into two parts: the western half centered in Rome and the eastern half centered in Constantinople, a city he named after himself.
Why Two Empires?
This map of the Roman Empire in 476 C.E. shows the various people who invaded and how they carved up the Empire.
In 324, Constantine's army
defeated the forces of Licinius, the emperor of the east. Constantine became
emperor of the entire empire and founded a new capital city in the eastern half
at Byzantium. The city was his New Rome and was later named Constantinople (the
"city of Constantine").
Constantinople was advantageously
situated for two reasons. First, it was on a peninsula that could be fortified
and defended easily. Further, because Constantinople was located on the
frontiers of the empire, imperial armies could respond more easily to external
attacks or threats.
Some scholars
also believe that Constantine established a new city in order to provide a
place for the young religion of Christianity to grow in an environment purer
than that of corrupt Rome.
The
western Empire spoke Latin and was Roman Catholic. The eastern Empire spoke
Greek and worshipped under the Eastern Orthodox branch of the Christian church.
Over time, the east thrived, while the west declined. In fact, after the
western part of the Roman Empire fell, the eastern half continued to exist as the
Byzantine Empire for hundreds of years. Therefore, the "fall of Rome"
really refers only to the fall of the western half of the Empire.Other fundamental problems contributed to the fall. In the economically ailing west, a decrease in agricultural production led to higher food prices. The western half of the empire had a large trade deficit with the eastern half. The west purchased luxury goods from the east but had nothing to offer in exchange. To make up for the lack of money, the government began producing more coins with less silver content. This led to inflation. Finally, piracy and attacks from Germanic tribes disrupted the flow of trade, especially in the west.
There were political and military difficulties, as well. It didn't help matters that political amateurs were in control of Rome in the years leading up to its fall. Army generals dominated the emperorship, and corruption was rampant. Over time, the military was transformed into a mercenary army with no real loyalty to Rome. As money grew tight, the government hired the cheaper and less reliable Germanic soldiers to fight in Roman armies. By the end, these armies were defending Rome against their fellow Germanic tribesmen. Under these circumstances, the sack of Rome came as no surprise.
Goth Rockers
Wave
after wave of Germanic barbarian tribes swept through the Roman Empire. Groups
such as the Visigoths, Vandals, Angles, Saxons, Franks, Ostrogoths, and
Lombards took turns ravaging the Empire, eventually carving out areas in which
to settle down. The Angles and Saxons populated the British Isles, and the
Franks ended up in France.In 476 C.E. Romulus, the last of the Roman emperors in the west, was overthrown by the Germanic leader Odoacer, who became the first Barbarian to rule in Rome. The order that the Roman Empire had brought to western Europe for 1000 years was no more.
Q8. Why did Somalia fail?
Ans. Before becoming a failed state Somalia was ruled
by dictator who kept Somalis out political participation.
Some inexperienced, uneducated angry people created
opposition groups to overthrow that regime, the regime didn't gave up
before the country and its infrastructure was ruined.
Those opposition leaders didn't plan what to do
after they overthrow the regime, and we know "if you don't have plan, your
plan is to fail".
The regime showed people how to humiliate people,
and they practiced the same to each other after the regime left, many people
were so angry that they couldn't even say a word, some thought of worse.
When pressure is released their is release of
energy be positive or negative, the failure of Somalia was caused by that
anger, that pressure, and some evil groups took advantage of the anger and
tried to destroy their opposite counterparts.
The people who overthrow the dictator couldn't
handle the situation very well because they didn't have plans ahead of their
victory.
Clans whose people were suffering from the luck of
justice tried to revenge from those who they suspect to have relations with the
clan of the former president Siyad Barre.
People thought that public infrastructure belonged
to the president's family, and those who were leading these people didn't tell
them to stop looting the nation's belongings.
That's the way things started as the first failure,
then came the international community's side.
The United Nations sent troops to restore peace,
and angry warlord -Mohamed Farah Aidid - thought those troops were helping his
opposition - Ali Mahdi Mohamed - and called for "Jihad" against the
peacekeepers.
Some people still laugh at you if you call that
fight against the peacekeepers was "Jihad", but he just said it was
Jihad because he wanted the fund from Arab Countries who wanted this kind of
politics and thought the failure of Somalia will benefit them.
Anyway, those peacekeepers were forced to withdraw
without any hope for the Somalis, and they left without leaving the peace they
were keeping, and the civilians were left with those greedy warlords that were
less civilized than apes - if that's too much I apologize, but the way they
ruled their territories is much of what I describe them.
A group of Islamic scholars tried to create a way
of jurisdiction to take complaints of people who are willing to come and settle
their issues peacefully, and this system was called "Islamic Courts".
Islamic Courts got a lot of reputation and some
kind of power, and they used that power to fight against the warlords, and they
succeeded.
Some foreign Islamist groups took advantage of this
and thought they have got a very good hide, to conceal their particular agendas
in this system.
They declared war against Ethiopia, and they were
chased into the woods afterwards, and started gorilla fight against the bases
of Ethiopian troops inside Somalia.
That time Islamist groups had many supporters
because the majority of the population disliked the invasion of Ethiopian to
Somalia's capital Mogadishu, because of previous historic events.
When Ethiopian troops left the country, the
Islamist groups didn't stop their fight and reinforced their attacks against
the African Union Mission in Somalia, to force those peacekeepers to leave the
country as the United Nations' peacekeepers did in early 1990s.
But the AMISOM didn't give up until today, and they
helped the country to its feet again.
The hope of Somali people is in its strongest state
now, and people gave up supporting greedy factions (warlords, Islamist groups,
and clan fighters) that have vague agendas and have no mercy for the country
and its citizens.
Q9. How did Soviet Union fail?
Ans. Lack of Economic Incentives: The state-planned economic system did not
provide sufficient incentives to encourage innovation and ambitious
productivity.
Excessive Military Focus: The USSR was overly-focused on military
build-up, neglecting domestic troubles that would play a major role in bringing
down the USSR. This was largely due to the perceived need to keep pace with the
massive U.S. military build-up.
Reduced Motivation of Fear: Friendlier relations with the U.S. in the
70s, 80s meant that the general public was no longer completely motivated to
strengthen itself against the American threat.
Decentralization: When the
Soviet Union did allow individual republics more autonomy, tax revenues were
withheld.
Stagnating Economy: The
Soviet Union had grown to a size large enough to the point where it became
cumbersome to continue state planning. The massive and intricate Soviet economy
became too large to manage by state planners, who were unwilling to enable more
autonomy at mid-managerial level to remain responsive down to a localized
level. This resulted in failed economic policies (failure to respond timely to
continuous changes), while thwarting innovation. Managers commonly fudged
numbers to show that quotas and goals were being met.
Additional Terms to Learn
(Examples)
Authoritarianism is a form of government in which the ruler
is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition
etc.)
Selected Readings &
Speeches
CHAPTER V
Concerning The Way to Govern Cities Or Principalities Which Lived
Under Their Own Laws Before They Were Annexed
Summary: - How to govern cities and states that were previously
self-governing
CHAPTER XVII
Concerning Cruelty and Clemency, And Whether It Is Better to Be
Loved Than Feared
Summary: - Cruelty and compassion.
Whether it is better to be feared or loved
Additional Questions &
Cases to Discuss (Examples)
Total Fail? Tools for Measurement
Gross
Domestic Product: - The
gross domestic product tells us about the health of the country’s economic. Gross domestic product (GDP) is the monetary value of all the finished goods and services produced within
a country's borders in a specific time period. Though GDP is usually calculated
on an annual basis, it can be calculated on a quarterly basis as well. GDP includes all private and public
consumption, government outlays, investments and exports minus imports that occur within a defined territory. Put
simply, GDP is a broad measurement
of a nation’s overall economic activity. There
are three primarily methods by which GDP can be determined. These three
approaches are often termed the expenditure approach, the output (or
production) approach, and the income approach. The expenditure approach
measures the total sum of all products used in developing a finished product
for sale.
Human Development Index: - The Human
Development Index (HDI)
is a composite statistic of life expectancy, education, and income per capita
indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human
development. The HDI was developed by the Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haqworking alongside
Indian economist Amartya
Sen, often framed in terms of whether people are
able to "be" and "do" desirable things in their life, and
was published by the United
Nations Development Programme. A country scores
higher HDI when the lifespan is higher, the education level is higher, the GDP per capita is higher, the fertility
rate is lower, and the inflation rate is lower. The HDI
(Human Development Index) is a way to measure well-being within a country. This is
mainly a social measurement because it takes into consideration
education, which is adult literacy rate and years of schooling, health care
which is judged by life expectancy and finally the economic factor of GDP.
The Social Progress
Index: - The Social Progress Index (SPI), developed by the Social Progress Imperative,
measures the extent to which countries provide for the social and environmental
needs of their citizens. Fifty-two indicators in the areas of basic human
needs, foundations of well-being, and opportunity show relative performance in
order to elevate the quality of discussion on national priorities and to guide
social investment decisions. he primary goal of the Social Progress Index is to
provide a rigorous tool to benchmark progress and stimulate progress within
countries. Social progress depends on the policy choices, investments, and implementation capabilities of multiple
stakeholders—government, civil society, and business. By informing and
motivating those stakeholders to work together and develop a more holistic
approach to development, we are confident
that social progress will accelerate.
Two key features of the Social
Progress Index are
1. The complete
exclusion of economic variables and
2. The use of outcome
measures rather than inputs
Legatum
Prosperity Index: - The Legatum
Prosperity Index is an annual
ranking of 142 countries, developed by the Legatum Institute, a division of the
private investment firm Legatum. The ranking is based on a variety of factors including
wealth, economic growth, education, health, personal well-being, and quality of
life. In the 2015 rankings, Norway tops the list followed by Switzerland and Denmark. Twenty-seven of the top 30 countries are democracies.
The Director of the Prosperity Index is the Danish economist Alexandra Mousavizadeh. The Prosperity Index is reviewed and critiqued by an
advisory panel of academics and scholars representing a range of disciplines
and includes: Prof Tim
Besley(London School of Economics); Dr.
Daniel Drezner (Tufts University); Dr. Carol Graham (Brookings Institution);
Dr. Edmund Malesky (University of California, San Diego); Dr. Ann Owen (Hamilton College). It is funded by the private investment firm Legatum,
which includes Legatum Capital, a portfolio investment fund manager; Legatum
Ventures a double bottom
line investment fund, the Legatum Foundation, a philanthropic
organisation; and the Legatum Center for Development And Entrepreneurship at
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a collaboration with MIT that funds
graduate student entrepreneurs from developing markets.
Freedom House: - Freedom
House is an independent nongovernmental organization that supports the
expansion of freedom in the world. Freedom is possible only in democratic
political systems in which the governments are accountable to their own people;
the rule of law prevails; and freedoms of expression, association, and belief,
as well as respect for the rights of minorities and women, are guaranteed. The organisation's annual Freedom in the World report, which assesses
each country's degree of political freedoms and civil liberties, is frequently
cited by political scientists, journalists, and policymakers. Freedom of the Press and Freedom
of the Net, which monitor
censorship, intimidation and violence against journalists, and public access to
information, are among its other signature reports. The Freedom on the Net reports provide analytical reports and
numerical ratings regarding the state of Internet
freedom for countries worldwide. The countries surveyed represent a
sample with a broad range of geographical diversity and levels of economic
development, as well as varying levels of political and media freedom.
Failed States
Index: - The Failed States Index (FSI) is an annual
report by The Fund for Peace (FfP) that measures the pressures on states, which
if not addressed or managed can lead to internal conflict or instability. The
FSI is intended to help policymakers, analysts, and others, such as those
making development investment decisions, to better understand the
underlying causes of state weakness, failure, and internal conflict, as well as
areas that need to be addressed to prevent such problems. The FSI is not a
forecasting tool. It does not imply that there will be conflict within a
particular country within a particular time. It does not suggest that all the
indicators are equally important in every country for increasing conflict risk.
Rather, it is a tool that provides an understanding of the deeper context in
which governments and states operate. The list
aims to assess states' vulnerability to conflict or collapse, ranking all
sovereign states with membership in the United Nations where there is enough
data available for analysis. Taiwan, the Palestinian
Territories, Northern Cyprus, Kosovo and Western
Sahara are not ranked, despite being recognized as sovereign by
one or more other nations.
Major Links
http://www.ushistory.org/civ/6f.asp
Additional Terms to Learn
(Examples)
Weak state: - Weak states are not intrinsically weak, or weak
because
of geography or colonialism; they are weak because they supply lesser or less-than-adequate quantities of political goods, or poorer-quality political goods, or both. Weak states range from Fiji, with its many coups but its well-educated and prosperous population, westward through the fractious Solomon Islands and the violently corrupt Papua New Guinea to Laos, Bangladesh, many of the Central
Asian polities, Lebanon, many of the Balkan polities, and across the Atlantic to much of Central America (barring Costa Rica) and parts of South America (Ecuador, Paraguay), or south to Africa, where nearly all of the sub-Saharan countries are
classified as weak. Weak States contain ethnic, religious, linguistic, or other tensions that limit or decrease its ability to deliver political goods. These conflicts are on the edge of exploding into open conflict. GDP per capita has fallen or falling. Interestingly, the privatization of education and health care is a sign of state weakness. Corruption is common. The rule of law is weakly applied. Despots rule. Examples: Iraq (under Saddam), Belarus, N. Korea, and Libya.
of geography or colonialism; they are weak because they supply lesser or less-than-adequate quantities of political goods, or poorer-quality political goods, or both. Weak states range from Fiji, with its many coups but its well-educated and prosperous population, westward through the fractious Solomon Islands and the violently corrupt Papua New Guinea to Laos, Bangladesh, many of the Central
Asian polities, Lebanon, many of the Balkan polities, and across the Atlantic to much of Central America (barring Costa Rica) and parts of South America (Ecuador, Paraguay), or south to Africa, where nearly all of the sub-Saharan countries are
classified as weak. Weak States contain ethnic, religious, linguistic, or other tensions that limit or decrease its ability to deliver political goods. These conflicts are on the edge of exploding into open conflict. GDP per capita has fallen or falling. Interestingly, the privatization of education and health care is a sign of state weakness. Corruption is common. The rule of law is weakly applied. Despots rule. Examples: Iraq (under Saddam), Belarus, N. Korea, and Libya.
Failed States provide
very little political goods. The forfeit the distribution of political goods to
warlords or non-state actors (i.e. Hamas). Security is non-existent in all but
the major cities (if that). The economic infrastructure has failed, the health
care system is in decline, and the educational system is in shambles. GDP per
capita is in a precipitous decline, inflation soars, corruption flourishes, and
food shortages are frequent. Failed states often have a very rich minority that
take advantage of the failed system. Examples: Nepal, Congo, Liberia,
Afghanistan, and Iraq.
Collapsed States are
failed states with a complete vacuum of authority (rare). They are black holes
in regards to all indicators of health. Collapsed states can become failed
states with intervention. Historical examples: Lebanon, Tajikistan, and Sierra
Leone.
catastrophic success:- An event
or product that attracts so much interest and attention that it exceeds its own
sustaining capacity, resulting in the inability of the organization to respond
to demand. the new product was such a hit that the store ran out,
resulting in angry crowds destroying the mall. it was a catastrophic success
for the company.
A civil society is comprised of groups or organizations working in the
interest of the citizens but operating outside of the governmental and
for-profit sectors. Organizations and institutions that make up civil society
include labour unions, non-profit organizations, churches, and other service
agencies that provide an important service to society but generally ask for
very little in return. Civil society is sometimes referred to as the civil sector, a term that is used to differentiate it from other sectors that
comprise a functioning society. For example, the United States is made up of
three sectors: the public sector, which is the government and its
branches; the private sector, which includes businesses and corporations; and the civil sector, which includes the organizations that act in the public's interest but
are not motivated by profit or government.
The word regime refers to
a set of conditions, most often of a political nature, such as a government. A wide variety of regime types exist. For
example, the United Kingdom has a constitutional monarchy, in which Queen
Elizabeth holds a limited amount of power. Theoretically, the queen is the
English head of state, but over time the English monarchy has become largely
ceremonial. Real governmental power now rests with the Parliament, the
legislative, law making body. In
contrast, the Third Reich of World War II was a totalitarian dictatorship.
Adolf Hitler controlled the government and the citizens of Nazi Germany.
Institution:an organization, establishment, foundation, society, or the like, devoted to the promotion of a particular cause or program, especiallyone of a public, or educational. The term "institution" commonly applies to
both informal institutions such as customs or behaviour pattern important to a society, and to particular formal
institutions created by entities such as the government and
public services. Primary or meta-institutions are institutions such as the family that are
broad enough to encompass other institutions. As structures and mechanisms of
social order, institutions are a principal object of study in social sciences such as political
science, anthropology, economics,
and sociology.
A non-governmental
organization (NGO) is a not-for-profit organization that is
independent from states and international governmental organizations. They are usually
funded by donations but some avoid formal funding altogether and are run
primarily by volunteers. NGOs are highly diverse groups of organizations
engaged in a wide range of activities, and take different forms in different
parts of the world. Some may have charitable status, while others may be
registered for tax exemption based on recognition of social purposes. Others
may be fronts for political, religious, or other interests. The number of NGOs
in the United States is
estimated at 1.5 million. Russia has
277,000 NGOs. India is
estimated to have had around 2 million NGOs in 2009, just over one NGO per 600
Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health
centres in India.
The Peacebuilding
Commission was established in December 2005 by the United Nations General
Assembly and the Security Council acting
concurrently. It is an inter-governmental advisory
body, in order to provide recommendations in post-conflict peace building, recovery, reconstruction and development, as well as serve as a coordination and exchange of
experiences forum on issues regarding peacebuilding. The Commission is composed
of 31 member states, which gather in two main fora: An Organizational
Committee, and specific Configurations, one for each country that currently is
part of the PBC’s agenda.
Democratization is the
transition to a more democratic political
regime. It may be the transition from an authoritarian regime to
a full democracy, a transition from an authoritarian political system to
a semi-democracy or transition from a semi-authoritarian political
system to a democratic political
system. The outcome may be consolidated (as it
was for example in the United
Kingdom) or democratization may face frequent
reversals (as it has faced for example in Argentina). Different patterns of democratization are often used
to explain other political phenomena, such as whether a country goes to a war
or whether its economy grows. Democratization itself is influenced by various
factors, including economic development, history, and civil society. The ideal
result from democratization is to ensure that the people have the right to vote
and have a voice in their political system.
A great many things,
including economics, culture, and history, have been cited as impacting on the
process. Some of the more frequently mentioned factors are:
Foreign trade. A 2016 study found that preferential trade agreements
"encourage the democratization of a country, in particular if the PTA partners
are themselves democracies."
International
cooperation. A 2002 study found that membership in
international organizations "is correlated with transitions to democracy
during the period from 1950 to 1992."
Democracy
protests. Research indicates that democracy protests
are associated with democratization. A 2016 study found that about a quarter of
all cases of democracy protests between 1989-2011 lead to democratization.
Threat of
conflict. Research suggests that the threat of civil conflict
encourages regimes to make democratic concessions. A 2016 study found that
drought-induced riots in Sub-Saharan Africa lead regimes, fearing conflict, to
make democratic concessions.
Dictatorship
type. Research suggests that some forms of
dictatorships are more likely to democratize than others. Military
dictatorships are more likely to transition to democracy than non-military
dictatorships.
Sovereignty is the quality or state of
being sovereign, or of having supreme power of authority.
Social contract - The agreement with which a person enters into civil
society. The contract essentially binds people into a community that exists for
mutual preservation. In entering into civil society, people sacrifice the
physical freedom of being able to do whatever they please, but they gain the
civil freedom of being able to think and act rationally and morally. Rousseau
believes that only by entering into the social contract can we become fully
human.
Authoritarianism is a form of government in which the ruler
is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition
etc.)
Development Agencies - In the United Kingdom
regional development agencies (RDAs) were nine non-departmental
public bodies established for the purpose of development,
primarily economic, of England's Government Office regions between 1998 and
2000. There was one RDA for each of the NUTS level 1 regions of England.
Selected Readings &
Speeches
·
The Coming Anarchy –
Robert Kaplan -- The Coming Anarchy: How scarcity, crime,
overpopulation, tribalism, and disease are rapidly destroying the social fabric
of our planet is an influential article
written by journalist Robert
D. Kaplan, which was first published in the February
1994 edition of The Atlantic
Monthly. It is considered to be one of the fundamental theses on the state
of current world affairs in the post-Cold
War era, and is ranked on the same level of
doctrinal importance as Samuel
Huntington's Clash
of Civilizations and Francis Fukuyama's The
End of History and the Last Man theses. U.S. President Bill Clinton reportedly recommended the article to White House staff.
It has also been criticized as a Malthusian reading of the world, for blaming the situation on its
victims and for overlooking alleged political and economical causes such as neoliberal policy.
Summary: - The end of the
Cold War in the late 1980’s produced a wave of optimism throughout most of the
Western world. Despite the fierce regional conflicts that scarred the 1990’s,
that optimism seemed to endure in the American public consciousness. The way
forward, it appeared, was clear: The worldwide growth of democracy and free
trade would ensure peace and prosperity for all; democratic capitalism had
proved itself to be the best way for human societies, on the cusp of the
twenty-first century, to organize themselves.
Put
like this, the naïveté and complacency of such notions are easily apparent.
They demonstrate the human tendency to see one’s own way as the only way and to
underestimate the lessons of history. Robert D. Kaplan, however, is determined
to blow a hole in the current optimism about the direction of global affairs in
the twenty-first century. He is like the biblical Jeremiah pointing grimly to
realities that most people are either unaware of or simply choose not to think
about.
All
but one of the nine essays in this volume were published in magazines between
1994 and 1998. The first and longest essay, which supplies the provocative title
of the volume, was published in The Atlantic Monthly, where it
attracted considerable comment.
Kaplan
takes as his focus the disintegrating social and political conditions in West
Africa, including such nations as Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast, and suggests
they are the way of the future for most of the planet:
Disease,
overpopulation, unprovoked crime, scarcity of resources, refugee migrations,
the increasing erosion of nation-states and international borders, and the
empowerment of private armies, security firms, and international drug cartels
are now most tellingly demonstrated through a West African prism.
Kaplan
points out that Sierra Leone is a nation-state in which the government no
longer controls much of its own territory (which has fallen back into the hands
of tribal chieftains). Diseases such as malaria are rampant because
deforestation has led to soil erosion and flooding and hence more mosquitoes
which carry the disease. AIDS spreads unchecked, and war is a constant reality.
Kaplan’s conclusion is that West Africa is slipping back to conditions that
prevailed in the nineteenth century, in which contact with the outside world
was limited to a few disease-ridden coastal trading posts, while the vast
interior remained impenetrable. Kaplan sees this as a map of the future because
the trend everywhere is toward the weakening of the nation-state, and this is
tied in with critical levels of environmental and demographic stress. According
to this argument, the world is rapidly heading back to a situation that
resembles medieval Europe before the rise of the nation-state.
Kaplan
identifies four areas through which the future of the planet can be glimpsed.
The first is environmental scarcity, which he claims will become the preeminent
national security issue of the early twenty-first century. He cites elements
such as soaring population growth (over the next fifty years, world population
will rise from 5.5 billion to 9 billion); spreading disease; deforestation
leading to soil erosion; water depletion (including in the southwestern United
States); air pollution; and possibly rising sea levels in places such as the
Nile Delta and Bangladesh, which will produce mass migrations and result in
social conflict.
As
a result of such environmental pressures, only a small minority of the world’s
population will live in the security of cities and suburbs where the
environment has been mastered. The rest will be involved in a fight for
survival. Kaplan quotes the scholar Thomas Fraser Homer-Dixon, who gives a vivid
if disturbing picture of this planetary future:
Think
of a stretch limo in the potholed streets of New York City, where homeless
beggars live. Inside the limo are the air-conditioned postindustrial regions of
North America, Europe, the emerging Pacific Rim, and a few other isolated
places, with their trade summitry and computer-information highways. Outside is
the rest of mankind, going in a completely different direction.
Environmental
crises will aggravate cultural and racial clashes. These will replace the
former bases of conflict, which were between competing nation-states and
competing ideologies. Citing Samuel P. Huntington of Harvard’s Olin Institute
for Strategic Studies, Kaplan points to emerging conflicts between Hindu,
Muslim, Slavic Orthodox, Western, Japanese, Confucian, and Latin American
cultures, which are likely to become more intense and socially disruptive over
the next few decades. These clashes will be felt even in the United States,
Kaplan points out, where African Americans already “find themselves besieged by
an influx of competing Latinos.”
CHAPTER V
Concerning The Way to Govern Cities Or Principalities Which Lived
Under Their Own Laws Before They Were Annexed
Summary: - How to govern cities and states that were previously
self-governing
- Now let's
talk about conquering places used to governing themselves, like republics
or democracies.
- There are
three ways to do this: (1) burn it all down, (2) go live there, and (3)
basically leave them alone but make them pay taxes and create a small
government.
- Got it?
Now forget the last two, because those aren't going to work. You need to
destroy these places.
- Republics
are too feisty, and they don't seem to like the idea of being conquered by
kings, oddly enough. If you don't burn it all down, they'll come back to
bite you when you least expect it, even 100 years later.
FULL CHAPTER -
WHENEVER those states which have
been acquired as stated have been accustomed to live under their own laws and
in freedom, there are three courses for those who wish to hold them: the first
is to ruin them, the next is to reside there in person, the third is to permit
them to live under their own laws, drawing a tribute, and establishing within
it an oligarchy which will keep it friendly to you. Because such a government,
being created by the prince, knows that it cannot stand without his friendship
and interest, and does its utmost to support him; and therefore he who would
keep a city accustomed to freedom will hold it more easily by the means of its
own citizens than in any other way.
There are, for example, the Spartans and the Romans. The
Spartans held Athens and Thebes, establishing there an oligarchy, nevertheless
they lost them. The Romans, in order to hold Capua, Carthage, and Numantia, dismantled
them, and did not lose them. They wished to hold Greece as the Spartans held
it, making it free and permitting its laws, and did not succeed. So to hold it
they were compelled to dismantle many cities in the country, for in truth there
is no safe way to retain them otherwise than by ruining them. And he who
becomes master of a city accustomed to freedom and does not destroy it, may
expect to be destroyed by it, for in rebellion it has always the watch-word of
liberty and its ancient privileges as a rallying point, which neither time nor
benefits will ever cause it to forget. And whatever you may do or provide
against, they never forget that name or their privileges unless they are
disunited or dispersed but at every chance they immediately rally to them, as
Pisa after the hundred years she had been held in bondage by the Florentines.
But when cities or countries are accustomed to live under a
prince, and his family is exterminated, they, being on the one hand accustomed
to obey and on the other hand not having the old prince, cannot agree in making
one from amongst themselves, and they do not know how to govern themselves. For
this reason, they are very slow to take up arms, and a prince can gain them to
himself and secure them much more easily. But in republics there is more
vitality, greater hatred, and more desire for vengeance, which will never
permit them to allow the memory of their former liberty to rest; so that the
safest way is to destroy them or to reside there.
CHAPTER XVII
Concerning Cruelty and Clemency, And Whether It Is Better to Be
Loved Than Feared
Summary: - Cruelty and compassion.
Whether it is better to be feared or loved
- So
generosity was a no-go. And compassion? Well, you guessed it: compassion
isn't really conducive to the sort of warlike ruler Machiavelli advocates
and might actually destroy a nation.
- Just like
it's better to be a little mean than nice for the sake of the nation, it's
better to be feared than loved because people seem to react better to
punishment than love.
- Again,
Machiavelli keeps telling us not to become hated, which is easy enough if
you lay off people's families and lands.
- In
Machiavelli's example section, he tells us how Hannibal was super awesome
because he was insanely cruel. We mean, there's a reason why that scary
dude from Silence of the Lambs was named Hannibal.
- Guess who
almost wasn't awesome? This guy called Scipio who was all mushy touchy
feely and didn't want to punish people. Lucky for him, other people
covered up his namby-pamby nature. But everyone is not so lucky.
- Anyway,
in the end, since the people choose if they like you or not, don't worry
about it. Just make sure that they don't hate you.
FULL CHAPTER -
COMING now to the other
qualities mentioned above, I say that every prince ought to desire to be
considered clement and not cruel. Nevertheless, he ought to take care not to
misuse this clemency. Cesare Borgia was considered cruel; notwithstanding, his
cruelty reconciled the Romagna, unified it, and restored it to peace and
loyalty. And if this be rightly considered, he will be seen to have been much
more merciful than the Florentine people, who, to avoid a reputation for
cruelty, permitted Pistoia to be destroyed. Therefore, a prince, so long as he
keeps his subjects united and loyal, ought not to mind the reproach of cruelty;
because with a few examples he will be more merciful than those who, through
too much mercy, allow disorders to arise, from which follow murders or robberies;
for these are wont to injure the whole people, whilst those executions which
originate with a prince offend the individual only.
And of all princes, it is impossible for the new prince to
avoid the imputation of cruelty, owing to new states being full of dangers.
Hence Virgil, through the mouth of Dido, excuses the inhumanity of her reign
owing to its being new, saying:
Nevertheless, he ought to be slow to believe and to act, nor
should he himself show fear, but proceed in a temperate manner with prudence
and humanity, so that too much confidence may not make him incautious and too
much distrust renders him intolerable.
Upon this a question arises: whether it be better to be loved than
feared or feared than loved? It may be answered that one should wish to be
both, but, because it is difficult to unite them in one person, is much safer
to be feared than loved, when, of the two, either must be dispensed with.
Because this is to be asserted in general of men, that they are ungrateful,
fickle, false, cowardly, covetous, and as long as you succeed they are yours
entirely; they will offer you their blood, property, life and children, as is
said above, when the need is far distant; but when it approaches they turn
against you. And that prince who, relying entirely on their promises, has
neglected other precautions, is ruined; because friendships that are obtained
by payments, and not by greatness or nobility of mind, may indeed be earned,
but they are not secured, and in time of need cannot be relied upon; and men
have less scruple in offending one who is beloved than one who is feared, for
love is preserved by the link of obligation which, owing to the baseness of
men, is broken at every opportunity for their advantage; but fear preserves you
by a dread of punishment which never fails.
Presenter: Paul Collier is an economist, a professor
at Oxford University and the author of The Bottom Billion, a book about creating
opportunities for the world’s most impoverished people. His work focuses
on the poorest countries, and what can be done to develop their economies.
Key
Points – The talk discusses post-conflict recovery. Collier talks
about the system currently in place after a conflict
has occurred and the problems with it He then proposes
a new solution that he thinks would make the country less likely to fall back
into civil war.
Interesting Stat – 40% of all
post-conflict situations are back in conflict within a decade (and account for
half of all civil war)
Summary
§ 3 principles traditionally
used (not successful) … but there is no quick fix.
§ The politics matter most
(build a new politics first)
§ It’s only dangerous for a
short time (only peacekeeping for a short time)
§ Have an election for an
accountable government (so peacekeepers can leave)
§ Election produces a winner
and a loser
§ Easier to do politics later
(after security and economic development) – people think economy is a zero sum
game (because it was during war) so needs to shift to cooperation and
prosperity
§ New steps that might work
§ Recognize interdependence of
3 actors (long-term)
§ Security council (provides
peacekeepers) – it does work but needs to be long term (a decade)
§ Donors – Provide
post-conflict aid (usually tapers off after a few years, but process is much
slower than that) – again, a decade
§ Post-conflict government –
economic reform and inclusion
§ The United Nations Peace
Building Commissioner should broker the contracts in these situations (mutual
commitments)
§ Economic recovery is the true
exit strategy
§ Can’t just look at all needs
(because everything is needed but money is tight)
§ Three things are critical
(jobs, health and clean government)
§ Jobs for young men are
important (they need something to do – so construction is perfect because it
produces jobs and fixes the infrastructure – and doesn’t worry as much about
export and international companies)
§ However, it should not be
jobs in the civil sector, it should be private companies (expand construction
sector) – need skills, access to land, new local firms, etc.
§ Improve basic social services
(rebuild an effective state – but how do we do that?) – can’t just give money
to government or NGOs
§ Policy should stay with the
ministry, delivery should be by anything that works (churches, NGOs, community
groups, etc.)
§ Public agency should funnel
the money appropriately
§ NGOs become part of the local
government system (makes everyone accountable – competing for resources)
§ Services are co-branded with
the new government (some trust is restored)
§ Clean government (follow the
money)
§ Needs donor money for
life-support in core budget (but no systems with integrity to make sure it’s
well spent)
§ We empower crooks otherwise
§ Provide a lot of scrutiny and
technical assistance (that follows the money – “accountants without borders”)
§ Goal – After 10 years:
§ focus on construction sector
= jobs + security (people are happy because they have jobs) + improved
infrastructure
§ Focus on social services =
basic services rescued and working + give ordinary people a sense of a useful
government + squeeze out political crooks (by using honest accounting)
§ Politics of plunder —>
politics of hope
Final
Thoughts – I think that this talk is a
really interesting one. I always find that governments try to rush into an
election right after a war, and it always seems like such a bad idea. You can’t
have an election and say there is now a great democracy, and it often causes
more problems than it solves. I like his idea of jump-starting the economy
first, and I definitely think that the presence of peacekeepers over the long
term would be ideal. I hope that in at least one case this idea is implemented,
and I feel that it might just work better than the prevailing strategies in
place now. Obviously the problems are more complex then they seem in a short
talk, but I think the priorities are definitely in order.
Additional Questions &
Cases to Discuss (Examples)
·
Study the Fund for Peace's "Fragile States Index" (formerly
the "Failed State Index"). Why do you think the index has been
renamed? Are its metrics appropriate? Where does your country fall in their
rankings – and do the rankings of any states surprise you?
Ans. When the Failed States Index
(FSI) was first published in 2005, the use of the term ‘”failed state” was
designed to highlight and draw attention to the very real risk that people
faced if their state failed to address the factors and conditions that we were
measuring. While we all agreed that the term “failed state” was fraught with
issues, mainly that we were not calling any country on the list failed, we knew
it would likely get attention. And it did. Despite this, almost every year, we
would revisit the name and think about whether we could change it finally. We
had the attention and we knew people used the Index and waited eagerly for its
release. Surely they would seek it out even if we changed the name? Yet the
argument remained that if we wanted to get attention for all people who live in
harsh conditions so that the international community, national governments, and
local actors could work to improve those conditions, we had to keep people’s
attention.
In the last few years, however, we
found that we ended up having more conversations about terminology than
substance. The name also was being cleverly used by politicians in
conflict-affected countries to try to dismiss the Index altogether as well as
their responsibility to address the issues that it highlighted. Our primary
purpose in creating the Index is to enable people to use it as a platform to
discuss what is happening in their own countries. We also create it to
encourage government responsibility, set priorities, and identify resources to
face challenges. We didn’t publish it every year to discuss what defined a
“failed state;” we created it every year to help prevent the conditions that
led to them. Overall our goal has always been to help improve human security in
countries all over the world. So while the term certainly gained people’s
attention, it also became a distraction from the point of the Index, which is
to encourage discussions that support an increase in human security and
improved livelihoods.
Some of the issues highlighted in the
Index are not easy topics to discuss. Some governments have failed their people
catastrophically and some have done it intentionally and violently. Sometimes
countries with very strong governments are the most repressive. Often, those
are governments who choose to not have a social contract with the whole of
their population and continue to choose their own interests, or the interests
of a few, over the good of all. It is critical to call attention to those
governments and the way they operate.
Other governments have weakness and
pressures that, if they work with their populations, and with assistance from
the international community, they can improve. They can fight and reduce
corruption of all kinds. They can improve the delivery of public services and
infrastructure. They can improve their tax systems and investment climates.
They can investigate and prosecute human rights abuses. They can provide
adequate training and civilian control of security forces so abuses are
prevented. But they cannot do all this immediately and alone. Government is
responsible to its people and for all of the issues just mentioned, but it
needs a responsible and free media, a strong civil society, and an active
business sector to help with all of this heavy lifting.
Over the last year, we had serious
discussions with lots of people over the way the name was negatively impacting
our ability to get the right kind of attention for the FSI. We work closely
with governments in countries struggling under harsh conditions and lots of
pressures, and it is not our intention to shame them. We want to be a partner
for those governments who face some of the most pressures and help alleviate
the conditions that can lead to violent conflict.
So, we are changing the name of the
Index to make sure we can be a part of addressing those challenges and that the
Index can be used, as one tool of many, to guide the development of priorities
and measure improvements and unfortunately also when things get worse.